Albedo

The albedo of an object is the extent to which it reflects light, defined as the ratio of reflected to incident electromagnetic radiation . It is a unitless measure indicative of a surface's or body's diffuse reflectivity . The word is derived from albus, a Latin word for "white".

The albedo is an important concept in climatology and astronomy . In climatology it is sometimes expressed as a percentage. Its value depends on the frequency of radiation considered: unqualified, it usually refers to some appropriate average across the spectrum of visible light. In general, the albedo depends on the direction and directional distribution of incoming radiation. Exceptions are Lambertian surfaces, which scatter radiation equally in all directions, so their albedo does not depend on the incoming distribution. In realistic cases, a bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) is required to characterise the scattering properties of a surface accurately, although albedos are a very useful first approximation.

Albedo is also important when observing geoglyphs, particularly geoglyphs in a group in that it can help visual identify (or at least suggest) the differences in age between proximate objects. 

Albedo may also prove to be useful in opening a completely new line of geoglyph research: photographing geoglyphs using thermal imaging to see the minor differences in thermal reflectivity that may present the pattern of a geoglyph where visible light does not.

Wikipedia: Albedo

Archaeology (also spelled: archeology)

1. The scientific study of historic or prehistoric peoples and their cultures by analysis of their artifacts, inscriptions, monuments, and other such remains, esp. those that have been excavated.

2. Rare. ancient history; the study of antiquity.

One of the great things about archaeology is that almost anyone can be an archaeologist.  All it requires is a curious mind, and the willingness to learn a few skills.  But most importantly accept that there is a scientific method that defines how knowledge is obtained, and what how conclusions and theories are proven.  Archaeology is not about fanciful speculation based upon what we would like to believe.  It is about what really is there.  And sometimes, what really is there is far stranger than what a few fantasist would have you believe!

Not all archaeology is about digging in the dirt.  Far from it.  It is also about analyzing what has been found using a variety of approaches, some chemical, some architectural, some design, and come plain old sleuthing.  It is also about connecting the dots in the right order, based upon what is truly there.  But remember, knowledge is constantly advancing, and what is a valid theory one year, may be replaced not long after.  That is the nature of science.

Wikipedia: Archaeology

Archaeological Fantasy

It is always valid to ask questions about any subject of science.  Especially true of archaeology, since the interpretations many times depend upon Interpretive Theories.  However, hypothesis and theory must be support by facts.  But challenging theory and facts is fundamental to advancing science, but again, a challenge must be based upon fact, and testable (provable) in its own right. 

Fantasy is altogether a different thing.  It is where the facts in total are ignored in favor of a subset of facts, or just speculation, to "prove" a new or different interpretation.  Fantasy and speculation are a natural reaction, but must never be confused with science.

• An example of Archaeology Fantasy gone wild! (in Spanish)

• Erick von Daniken's website

For more archaeological definitions visit:

• Archaeological Glossary

• reference-wordsmith.com  

Wikipedia: Fantasy

Arte rupestre is a generic term for rock art (petroglyphs and pictographs).  Generally, they are found on rock faces (such as the Palpa petroglyphs), or in caves.

Wikipedia (Spanish): Arte Rupestre

BCE or B.C.E. (sometimes also used ACE) stands for Before the Current Era, Common Era (the modern era) the alternative to using the religious Before Christ (B.C.) (or A.C. in Spanish).

Biomorph (see Zoomorph)

Expands upon the definition of Zoomorph to include any life form (such as plants).

Wikipedia: Morph

CE or C.E. stands for Current Era, Common Era (the modern era) the alternative to using the religious Anno Domini (A.D.) (or D.C. in Spanish).

The Chachapoyas, also called the Warriors of the Clouds, were an Andean people living in the cloud forests of the Amazonas region of present-day Peru . The Incas conquered their civilization shortly before the arrival of the Spanish in Peru. When the Spanish arrived in Peru in the 16th century, the Chachapoyas were one of the many nations ruled by the Inca Empire. Their incorporation into the Inca Empire had not been easy, due to their constant resistance to the Inca troops.

Wikipedia: Chachapoya

The Chavín, a South American preliterate civilization, established a trade network and developed agriculture by 900 BCE, according to some estimates and archeological finds. Artifacts were found at a site called Chavín in modern Peru at an elevation of 3,177 meters. The Chavín civilization spanned from 900 to 300 BCE.

Arising in the Andean highlands of north central Peru around the same timeframe as the Olmecs in Central America, the Chavin Culture was from 1200 to 200 BCE. The Chavins also revered a jaguar man god. Distinctive jaguar designs were found on the bone and stone carvings, the metal work, and the textiles of the Chavin. Their main city and the center of Chavin urban and ceremonial culture was Chavin de Huantar.

Besides the developed agricultural systems found at this site, there was also a central building called The Castillo. The building most likely served as a religious hub for the Chavin since it was ornamented with intricately designed stone reliefs and sculptures of birds, animals, and humans. For about 500 years the Chavin dominated Peruvian culture, and, skillful artisans in their outposts in the northern Peruvian coastal valleys at Cupisnique, Chongoyape, and Tembladera, produced effigy pots with elaborate designs.

Wikipedia: Chavín culture

Chimor (also Kingdom of Chimor) was the political grouping of the Chimú culture that ruled the northern coast of Peru, beginning around 850 AD and ending around 1470 AD. Chimor was the largest kingdom in the Late Intermediate period, encompassing 1000 km of coastline and including up to 2/3 of the people of the Andes. The greatest surviving ruin of this civilization is the mud city of Chan Chan .  The Chimú grew out of the remnants of the Moche culture. The first valleys seem to have joined forces willingly, but Sican was acquired through conquest. They also were significantly influenced by the Cajamarca culture and the Huari. According to legend the capital Chan Chan was founded by Taycanamo who arrived in the area by sea.

Chimor was the last kingdom that had any chance of stopping the Inca. But the Inca conquest was begun in the 1470s by Tupac Inca , defeating to the local emperor Minchancaman , descendant of Tacaynamo, and was nearly complete when Huayna Capac assumed the throne in 1493 AD.

Their ceramics are all black. They are also known for their exquisite and intricate metal-working.

Wikipedia: Chimor

The Chimú were the residents of Chimor with its capital at the city of Chan Chan , a large adobe city, in the Moche valley of Trujillo , Peru . The Inca ruler Tupac Inca Yupanqui led the campaign which conquered just fifty years before the arrival of the Spanish in the region. Spanish chroniclers were able to record accounts of Chimú culture from individuals who had lived before the Inca conquest. Archaeological evidence suggest that Chimor grew out of the remnants of the Moche culture; early Chimú pottery had some resemblance to Moche pottery. Their ceramics are all black and their metalwork is very detailed and intricate.

The Chimu were also known for worshiping the moon, unlike the Inca who worshiped the sun. The Chimu viewed the sun as a destroyer. This is likely due to the harshness of the sun in the desert environment they lived in.

The Chimú are best known for their distinctive monochromatic pottery and fine metal working of copper, gold, silver, bronze, and tumbago (copper and gold). The pottery is often in the shape of a creature, or has a human figure sitting or standing on a cuboid bottle. The shiny black finish of most Chimú pottery is not achieved by using glazes, but instead is achieved by firing the pottery at high temperatures in a closed kiln which prevents oxygen from reacting with the clay.

The largest pre-Columbian city of the Chimu Culture from 100 to 1470 ACE was Chan Chan. The capital of the Chimu, the city had about ten thousand dwellings of various sizes. About 50,000 people lived at the large site which was north of Trujillo. Chan Chan had canals, storage bins, temples, walk-in wells, and workshops.

The functional and organizational orientation of the Chimu culture resulted in rather lackluster, unoriginal artwork in comparison to other Peruvian cultures. Chimu pottery consisted mainly of blackware which was made using simple methods of production. Their metallurgy, however was highly developed.

Frieze designs were molded into the mud walls of buildings, and the most important ones were covered with layers of precious metals. Before the Chimu were conquered by the Incas around 1460 ACE, their influence stretched along the coast from the Gulf of Guayaquil to Chancay.

Wikipedia: Chimu

Editor's Note: In developing this website, we struggled with how and where to discuss von Daniken.  Not because he is an Archaeological Fantasist, but because he has made a significant contribution to science and the study of the Nanza geoglyphs.  While his contribution is, in some ways minimal, his impact has been massive, because it has introduced the geoglyphic symbols of the Nazca plain to millions the world over.  Without this massive public relations campaign, the public's interest in the Nazca lines, and archaeology in general would be far less.  So we say thank you to Erick for his spirit of adventure, and thirst for understanding, regardless of his fantastic speculations.  However, let us not forget, Erich believes aliens are responsible for these massive human accomplishments!

Erich Anton Paul von Däniken (b. Zofingen, Aargau, Switzerland, April 14, 1935) is a controversial Swiss author best known for his books which examine speculation for extraterrestrial influences on early human culture. Von Däniken is one of the key figures responsible for popularizing the ancient astronaut hypotheses and archaeological fantasy as a movement.

Wikipedia: von Daniken

Geoglyph

McGuinnessPublishing is a financial supporter of the work of the International Geoglyph Registry. We encourage both the public and scientists to register both current and future geoglyph discoveries with the registry.  By registering geoglyphs we can both better understand the scope of our cultural treasures, and help in protecting their futures!               more info »

A geoglyph is a work of rock art that was made from moving or arranging stones or earth across a landscape. Geoglyphs also can be carved into a hillside exposing bedrock; these types of geoglyphs are called chalk giants.  The Nazca geoglyphs expose the soil under the desert pavement.  Other kinds of geoglyphs are made by collecting and piling stones into patterns.  You could consider crop circles and corn mazes as examples of modern geoglyphs.

Another definition: Any ground-constructed example of rock art, such as intaglios or rock alignments; straight lines, geometric shapes, and other representative designs found on the desert plain. Geoglyphs can be formed by piling up materials on the ground surface or by removing surface materials and most suggest a largely ceremonial function.

Wikipedia: Geoglyph

Grave robbers, looters, destroyers of archaeological sites.  Typically, these are poor locals who plunder to make a living by digging up unexplored archaeological sites and trafficking in what ever looted artifacts are found.  Some estimate that as much as 50% of Peru's ancient wealth has been plundered.

The Wari (Spanish Huari) was a Middle Horizon civilization that flourished in the Andes in the south of modern-day Peru , from about 500 to 1200 A.D. The capital city of the same name is located near the modern city of Ayacucho , Peru. This city was the center of a civilization that covered much of the highlands and coast of modern Peru. Early on, their territory expanded to include the ancient oracle center of Pachacamac, though it seems to have remained largely autonomous. Then later it expanded to include much of the territory of the earlier Moche and later Chimu cultures. The best-preserved remnants of the Huari Culture exist near the town of Quinua at the Wari Ruins . Also well-known are the Wari ruins of Pikillaqta ("Flea Town") a short distance south-east of Cuzco en route to Lake Titicaca , which date from the Wari period before the Incas rose to power in the region.

The Wari are historically important for a number of reasons. They were contemporaries of the Tiwanaku and shared similar artistic styles. Contact between the two cultures appears to have been limited to a span of 50 years in which there was sporadic fighting over a mine first occupied by the Tiwanaku. The mine straddled the border between the two cultures' spheres of influence and the Wari attempted, but failed, to secure it for themselves.  Not much is known about their government, as they did not leave behind any written records.  The Wari state established architecturally distinctive administrative centers in many of its provinces. Some 300 years after the Wari empire collapsed, the Incas became the dominant power in the Andean region.  The Wari terraced field technology was adopted by the Incas when they began a major push to improve the agricultural productivity of their lands. The Wari had a major road network set up throughout their sphere of influence, which may have become part of the Inca road system .

The native language of the Wari area in recent times has been Quechua , though the comparative and historical study of the Andean languages suggests that the language of the Wari culture may have been a form of Aymara <